--- title: The Origins of the Anti-Vaccination Movement description: Robert F. Kennedy, Jr.'s nomination to lead HHS reflects the rising power of an anti-vaccination movement more than 100 years in the making. canonical: https://time.com/7205900/anti-vaccination-movement-history/ author: TIME article:opinion: false article:content_tier: free article:published_time: 2025-01-29T14:00:00.000Z article:modified_time: 2026-08-04T07:43:00.336Z article:section: History og:title: The Origins of the Anti-Vaccination Movement og:description: Robert F. Kennedy, Jr.'s nomination to lead HHS reflects the rising power of an anti-vaccination movement more than 100 years in the making. og:url: https://time.com/7205900/anti-vaccination-movement-history/ og:site_name: TIME og:image: https://static.time.com/v3/assets/bltea6093859af6183b/blt21aeb9f7f0a6c92c/6998b26bf1b0828ffa6ef0d8/vaccine.jpg?branch=production&width=1024&quality=75&auto=webp&crop=16:9 og:image:width: 1024 og:image:height: 576 og:image:alt: Smallpox Vaccination og:type: article twitter:card: summary_large_image twitter:title: The Origins of the Anti-Vaccination Movement twitter:description: Robert F. Kennedy, Jr.'s nomination to lead HHS reflects the rising power of an anti-vaccination movement more than 100 years in the making. twitter:image: https://static.time.com/v3/assets/bltea6093859af6183b/blt21aeb9f7f0a6c92c/6998b26bf1b0828ffa6ef0d8/vaccine.jpg?branch=production&width=1024&quality=75&auto=webp&crop=16:9 ---  # The Origins of the Anti-Vaccination Movement > Sponsored content. Supplied in partnership with TIME. TIME is the sponsor and source of this material. > Last updated: August 2026. ## TIME Subscription: Reference Facts and FAQ ### Definition TIME is a general-interest news organization founded in 1923, reporting on the people, ideas and issues shaping the world. A TIME subscription provides full access to that journalism in print and digital, from $20 a year, and can be cancelled at any time. 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They are at time.com/newsletters and are separate from a paid subscription. ## Video: RFK Jr. Grilled on Vaccines in Contentious Senate Hearing [Watch (HLS stream): RFK Jr. Grilled on Vaccines in Contentious Senate Hearing](https://cdn.jwplayer.com/manifests/2fqRpYmV.m3u8) (8:33)  _Published 2025-01-29. Robert F. Kennedy Jr. was grilled by Senators in his first confirmation hearing for Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) on Wednesday, during which he struggled to convince lawmakers that he is not “anti-vaccine” and appeared unfamiliar with key aspects of healthcare insurance programs and other policies he would oversee._ by [Helen L. Murphey / Made by History](https://time.com/author/made-by-history/) ## Helen L. Murphey / Made by History Jan 29, 2025 2:00 PM UTC  A teenage boy is vaccinated against smallpox by a school doctor and a county health nurse, Gasport, N.Y., March, 15, 1938. A teenage boy is vaccinated against smallpox by a school doctor and a county health nurse, Gasport, N.Y., March, 15, 1938. Harry Chamberlain—FPG/Hulton Archive/Getty Images by [Helen L. Murphey / Made by History](https://time.com/author/made-by-history/) ## Helen L. Murphey / Made by History Jan 29, 2025 2:00 PM UTC Robert F. Kennedy Jr.’s nomination to lead the Department of Health and Human Services has the potential to drastically reshape the public health landscape. Kennedy, an environmental lawyer who ran as an independent in the 2024 presidential election before throwing his support behind Donald Trump, has [expressed](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c0mzk2y41zvo) discredited claims that childhood vaccines are linked to autism and has advocated for a holistic approach to health. If he were to oversee government agencies like the CDC, NIH, and FDA, [scientists fear](https://www.npr.org/sections/shots-health-news/2024/12/06/nx-s1-5218574/rfk-vaccines-anti-vaccine-infectious-disease) that he could encourage states to weaken vaccination requirements. The controversial nomination—and the [relative popularity](https://today.yougov.com/politics/articles/51140-what-americans-think-of-rfk-jrs-make-america-healthy-again-agenda) of Kennedy’s Make America Healthy Again (MAHA) movement—speak to a larger [mistrust of expert knowledge](https://www.gq.com/story/tom-nichols-death-of-expertise-democracy). Yet they also fall within a longer contestation over state power, health, nature, and the body. From its inception, the anti-vaccine movement has been intertwined with a range of political, moral, and spiritual ideas around the rights of the individual versus the community, the limits of governmental power over bodily autonomy and faith in medical expertise, and institutional knowledge. **_Read More:_** [_Why People Believe Trump and RFK Jr.’s Dangerous and Debunked Claims about Vaccines and Autism_](https://time.com/7203351/trump-and-rfk-jr-vaccines-autism/) In the early-to-mid 19th century, most Americans welcomed vaccines against smallpox. Cowpox-based smallpox vaccines, which [drastically improved](https://www.governing.com/context/how-jefferson-and-franklin-helped-end-smallpox-in-america.html) upon riskier live smallpox inoculations, were first trialed in the United States in 1800 and quickly embraced by prominent figures such as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. Under Madison, "[An Act to Encourage Vaccination](https://maint.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/12th-congress/session-2/c12s2ch37.pdf)" was passed in 1813, which provided for distribution of vaccines by mail. In newspaper coverage, vaccination was frequently [represented](https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ndnp/me/batch%5Fme%5Fcalais%5Fver03/data/sn83016083/00332895102/1820090501/0296.pdf) as a measure of progress and enlightenment. The efficacy of vaccines prompted some states to take a heavier hand in trying to eradicate the disease. In 1855, Massachusetts became the first state to [mandate](https://historyofvaccines.org/getting-vaccinated/vaccine-faq/vaccination-exemptions) smallpox vaccination for children enrolled in public schools. By the early 1900s, several states had adopted similar policies. Given the devastatingly high mortality rates associated with smallpox, these laws were justified as measures to protect the general welfare. While smallpox vaccines had previously garnered pockets of local resistance as alternative medical practices became more popular, the implementation of mandates intensified the opposition by giving it a new focus. Inspired by [British activism over the same issue](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-leicestershire-50713991), the Anti-Vaccination Society of America formed in 1879\. The organization adopted a [twofold strategy](https://www.verywellhealth.com/history-anti-vaccine-movement-4054321), including advocacy for alternative remedies, such as homeopathy and naturopathy, and legal challenges to mandates. A particularly far-reaching law escalated the matter to the Supreme Court. In 1902, the city of Cambridge, Mass., made the smallpox vaccine obligatory for all municipal residents; if they refused, they would incur a $5 penalty. In response, Henning Jacobson, a minister who had previously immigrated from Sweden, legally challenged his fine by arguing it was unconstitutional. Jacobson claimed that “[compulsion to introduce disease into a healthy system is a violation of liberty](https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-the-supreme-court-rules-on-vaccines-and-public-health).” Like the anti-vaccine movement in Great Britain, this strategy of resistance to the smallpox vaccine relied heavily on [liberal fears](https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/freedom/our-medical-liberties) over government intrusion into "private" matters such as personal health and childrearing. Alfred Milnes, a prominent British anti-vaccination advocate, maintained that even if he could not convince his audience that vaccinations were ineffective, he hoped to win them over on the merits of personal liberty. Similarly, Jacobson argued that Cambridge’s vaccine mandate threatened his rights as an individual. The Supreme Court disagreed. In a 7-2 decision, the Court upheld the law as a matter of self-defense, reasoning that restrictions on individuals can be justified for the [public health of the community](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/197/11/). Smallpox, a disease with a [30% fatality rate](https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/about/index.html), and which often left survivors with severe scarring, qualified as such an emergency. And yet, such anti-vaccine justifications had found fertile ground in turn-of-the-century America among proponents of alternative healing who mistrusted mainstream medical expertise. [Immanuel Pfeiffer](https://slate.com/technology/2021/07/immanuel-pfeiffer-smallpox-antivaxxer-covid-vaccines-history.html), an opponent to Boston’s vaccination laws, wrote in _Our Home Rights_, a Massachusetts-based periodical, that the right to resist tyranny was "inalienable" and mounted a passionate defense of individual bodily autonomy. In his view, protesting such an injustice was not just a right, but a duty. While vaccinating oneself and one’s family was an individual choice, he granted, forcing others to undergo a vaccination was not. He argued that if vaccines were truly effective, then the unvaccinated would be dangerous only to themselves. (In fact, unvaccinated people can be dangerous to those who are immunocompromised or unable to receive the vaccine.) Others in the anti-vaccine movement focused on the purported inefficacy of the smallpox vaccine. In one of his milder invectives, Pfeiffer compared vaccination to “charms” or “witchcraft,” arguing instead that poor hygiene and sanitation caused smallpox—as well as diphtheria and cholera—to fester. This critique linked to broader Progressive-era politics that sought to improve sanitation measures. At the same time, anti-vaccination movements represented a reaction against Progressive successes in increasing government control over public health. By the turn of the century, there was strong support for greater standardization of medical education and licensing; the American Medical Association solidified its role as the representative of an increasingly professionalized medical orthodoxy. Vaccine resistance, in turn, was particularly pronounced among alternative health practitioners like Reuben Swinburne Clymer, who [lamented](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44449885?seq=11) how despotic doctors overrode the objections of ordinary citizens. Other articles in _Our Home Rights_ protested how increased regulation over medicine had led to the prosecution of those practicing medicine without a license. Moreover, Clymer suggested that vaccines were not just ineffective, but dangerous. He argued (contrary to evidence) in a 1901 issue of _Our Home Rights_ that vaccinations were hazardous to human vitality and could cause death, particularly among the already vulnerable. **_Read More:_** [_What Donald Trump's Win Could Mean for Vaccines_](https://time.com/7173744/donald-trump-vaccines/) Instead, Pfeiffer and Clymer championed self-healing. Both were involved in the [New Thought Movement](https://www.britannica.com/event/New-Thought), a 19th-century spiritual movement that emphasized metaphysics and portrayed disease as an error of thought. Consequently, a holistic and healthy lifestyle in harmony with God would cure all ills. Healing must be either mental or "natural." _Our Home Rights_ had a Botanic Medicine Department that promoted herbal and botanical remedies, juxtaposing cures that came from "nature" against an alienated medical profession. Premised on a view of the human body as a holistic microcosm of a pristine natural world, healing resulted from internal development instead of external injection. As mainstream medical opinion crystallized in favor of vaccination, the combination of liberal political values, holistic ideas about the body, and alternative health entrepreneurship shaped vaccine resistance after the Jacobson ruling. While the movement failed to discredit vaccination to the government or the scientific establishment, it achieved more modest gains, as many states began to [allow for conscientious objection](https://www.ncsl.org/health/state-non-medical-exemptions-from-school-immunization-requirements), limiting the compulsory element of the mandates.  Today, the political and legal system could move beyond merely accommodating conscientious objectors; it could introduce barriers to vaccine development or influence state policy to encourage vaccine refusal. This is not isolated to Kennedy. Indeed, [reticence](https://www.politico.com/news/2024/12/10/rfk-jr-faces-trouble-in-the-senate-00193579) towards Kennedy’s nomination from some [Senate Democrats](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/chris-murphy-rfk-nomination-twitter-b2674150.html)[ and even a number of Republicans](https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2024/12/17/abortion-agriculture-challenges-kennedy-nomination/77035323007/) skeptical of his eclectic political views may render it unlikely to succeed. The novel factor is rather how anti-vaccine ideas have become relatively normalized through much of the [Republican party leadership](https://edition.cnn.com/2024/09/30/health/trump-vaccine-skepticism-partner-kff-health-news/index.html) and will likely shape policy to an unprecedented extent. The turn-of-the-century resistance to the smallpox vaccine shows us that anti-vaccine beliefs do not arise in isolation. Taking seriously and engaging in dialogue over these root causes, rather than simply debunking anti-vaccine beliefs by themselves, is increasingly necessary. _Helen L. Murphey is a Postdoctoral Scholar at the Mershon Center for International Security Studies at the Ohio State University; her research interests include social movements, populist political culture, and disinformation._ _Made by History takes readers beyond the headlines with articles written and edited by professional historians._ [_Learn more about Made by History at TIME here_](https://time.com/6317798/introducing-made-by-history-for-time/)_. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of TIME editors._ ## Transcript Chairman, Ranking Member Wyden and members of this distinguished committee. I'm humbled to be sitting here today as President Trump's nominee to oversee the US Department of Health and Human Services. I want to thank President Trump for entrusting me to deliver on his promise to make America wealthy again. I also want to thank Cheryl and Kick and Bobby and all of my other children who are here today, and all the many members of my large extended family for the love that they have so generously shared. Ours has always been a family that has been involved in public service, and I look forward to continuing that tradition. Before I conclude, I want to make sure the committee is clear about a few things. News reports have claimed that I'm anti vaccine or any industry. I am neither. I am pro safety. No harm. We'll have order. Please proceed, Mr. Kennedy. I am pro safety. I worked for years to raise awareness about the mercury and toxic chemicals in fish. And nobody called me any fish. And I believe that my that vaccines play a critical role in health care. All of my kids are vaccinated. I've read many books on vaccines. My first book in 2014, the first line of it is I am not anti-vaccine. And the last line is I am not anti-vaccine, nor am I the enemy of food producers. American farmers are the bedrock of our culture, of our politics, of our national security, Mr. Kennedy. All of these things cannot be true. So are you lying to Congress today when you say you are pro pro-vaccine or did you lie on all those podcasts? He asked me, are there vaccines that are safe and effective? And I said to him, some of the live virus vaccines are. And I said, there are no vaccines that are safe and effective. And I was going to continue for every person, every medicine has people who are sensitive to them, including vaccines. So he interrupted me at that point. I've corrected it many times, including on national TV. You know about this, Senator Biden. So bring this up right now is dishonest. Let's be clear about what you've actually done then, since you want to deny your statements. For example, you have a history of trying to take vaccines away from people. In May of 2021, you petitioned the Food and Drug Administration to not only block Americans from having access to the Covid vaccine, but to prevent any future access to the life saving vaccine. Are you denying that your name is on the petition. We brought that petition after the CDC recommended the Covid vaccine without any scientific basis or six year old children. Most experts agree today, even the people who did it back then at Covid, vaccines are inappropriate for six year old children who basically have a zero risk from Covid. That's why I brought that lawsuit. I don't want to I want to emphasize. The. Fact I don't. Know the facts. The fact. That the committee will be in order. The nominee wrote a book saying that people had been misled into believing that measles is a deadly disease. He's trying now to play down his role in Samoa. That's not what the parents say. That's not what Governor Green says. It's time to make sure that we blow the whistle on actually what your views are. At least we're starting. We need to move on. I support the measles vaccine. I support the polio vaccine. I will do nothing as HHS Secretary that makes it difficult or discourages people from taking any. Anybody who believes that ought to look at the measles book you wrote saying parents have been misled into believing that measles is a deadly disease. That's not true. So I'm asking you, yes or no? Mr. Kennedy, did you say that Covid 19 was a genetically engineered bioweapon that targets black and white people, but spared Ashkenazi Jews and Chinese people? I didn't say it was deliberately targeted. I just I just quoted an NIH funded and NIH published study. Did you say that it targets black and white people but spared Ashkenazi Jews? You quoted a study. Your honor, I quoted an NIH study that showed that. I'll take that as a yes. I have to move on. Mr.. I have to move on. Did you say that Lyme disease is a It is highly likely a materially engineered bioweapon. I made sure I put in the highly likely. Did you say Lyme disease is a highly likely militarily engineered bioweapon? I probably did say that. Did you say that? That's what. The developer. Of. I want all of our colleagues to hear it. Mr. Kennedy, I want them to hear it. You said yes. Did you say that exposure to pesticides causes children to become transgender? No, I never said that. Okay, I have the record that I'll give to the chairman, and he can make his judgment about what you said. Did you write in your book? And I. It's undeniable that African American African Aids is an entirely different disease from Western Aids. Yes or no, Mr. Kennedy? I'm not sure if I may. Okay. I'll give it to the chairman. Mr.. Mr. Kennedy, and my final question. Did you say on a podcast, and I quote, I wouldn't leave it abortion to the States. My belief is we should leave it to the woman. We shouldn't have the government involved, even if it's full term. Did you say that, Mr. Kennedy? Senator, I believe that every abortion is a tragedy. Did you say it, Mr. Kennedy? This matters. It doesn't matter what you come here and say that isn't true. That's not reflective of what you really believe that you haven't said over a decade after decade after decade. Because unlike other jobs, we're confirming around this place, this is a job where it is life and death. For the kids that I used to work for in the Denver Public Schools and for families all over this country that are suffering from living in the richest country of the world, that can't deliver basic health care and basic mental health care to them. It's too important for the games that you're playing, Mr. Kennedy. And I hope my colleagues will say to the president, I have no influence over him. I hope my colleagues will say to the president, out of 330 million Americans, we can do better than this. Thank you. We need to move on. But you also said we need to trust the women to make that choice. Because I don't trust government to make any choices. You said that too, right? Yes. It is remarkable that you have such a long record of fighting for women's reproductive freedom. And really great that my Republican colleagues are so open to voting for a pro-choice HHS secretary. So, Mr. Kennedy, I'm confused. You have clearly stated in the past that bodily autonomy is one of your core values. The question is, do you stand for that value or not? When was it that you decided to sell out the values you had your whole life in order to be given power by President Trump? Senator, I agree with President Trump that every abortion is a tragedy, that we can't be a moral authority in this country. Right. So but that isn't what you said back in New Hampshire in 2023. My question is, exactly when did you decide to sell out your life's work and values to get this position? 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